Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii: Biology, Pathogenesis, Clinical Management, and Emerging Control Strategies (a review)

Authors: Munwar Ali, Qazal Hina and Jia Wang

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.71081/cvj/2026.076

Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), remains a ubiquitous zoonotic disease affecting warm-blooded animals and humans worldwide. This parasite is known for its wide host range, adaptation to harsh climates, multistage life cycle, clinical complications, and zoonotic transmission. Despite advances in vaccine research and proteomics, treatment and prevention remain challenging, with current therapies showing limited efficacy against latent tissue cysts and significant toxicities. This review examines parasite biology (taxonomy, morphology, life cycle), global epidemiology with regional seroprevalence patterns, and molecular pathogenesis involving host cell invasion and immune evasion. We analyze clinical manifestations across immunocompetent, immunocompromised, and congenital populations, emphasizing cerebral and ocular complications. Diagnostic methodologies from serological assays (IgG/IgM, ISAGA, ELFA) to molecular techniques (PCR, NGS) are evaluated, alongside treatment protocols (pyrimethamine-sulfadiazine, spiramycin) and their limitations. Prevention strategies encompassing food safety, hygiene, and veterinary management are addressed. Synthesizing multi-omics advances, novel vaccine platforms (nucleic acids, VLPs), and emerging therapeutic targets, we identify critical gaps in bradyzoite elimination and clinical translation. By integrating these advances, this review provides a strategic framework for improving toxoplasmosis management and highlights priority areas for tissue cyst-specific vaccines and alternative therapies to address this neglected parasitic disease.

Keywords: Biology, Epidemiology, Parasite, Pathogenesis, Therapeutics